The Spark of Macbeths Downfall Essay Example

The Spark of Macbeths Downfall Essay Men have always fallen from greatness due their greediness and ambitions. Humans have showed the obvious fall from grace, starting with the original sin of Eve; and following with its constant reoccurrence in our everyday lives. In the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare, it clearly shows the negative impact of excess ambition. The witches, Lady Macbeth, and Macbeths own ambitions sparked Macbeths downfall.The three witches harvested the seed of ambition in Macbeth and foreshadowed the evil that shall follow, in this case Macbeth, by the contradictory saying, Fair is foul, and foul is fair (I, ii, 12). When greeting Macbeth they started out with the lines All hail Macbeth, hail to thee, Thane of Glamis! /All hail Macbeth, hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor! /All hail Macbeth, that shalt be king hereafter. (I, iii, 47-49) These prophecies inspired Macbeth to think big, and fantasize for bigger fame and expansion of his title. As the witches prophesized Macbeths future success, they never specified how, or to what occasion his rank will excel, therefore, he took their prophecies and personalized them.Instead of waiting patiently for the prophecies to come true, Macbeths thirst for power over came his good judgment, and the witches reassurances made him believe he was unbeatable. The witches prophecies continued by presenting the three apparitions that gave Macbeth even more hope and confidence of his invincibility. As the first apparition, an armed Head, warned Macbeth to beware Macduff, (IV, I, 71) his fear of loosing all he has lusted for, and killed for, overtook him, and thats when he decided to secure his permanent position on the throne. Macbeth orders the killing of Macduffs wife, children, and servants, in the hope of ruining Macduffs strength. While, instead of weakening Macduff, the deaths only made Macduff stronger and helped him realize that Macbeths killing rampage wasnt going to stop.The second apparition, a bloody Child, reassured Macbeth that none of woman born/ Shall harm Macbeth. (IV, I, 79-80) which gave Macbeth all the security he needed, and due to the fact he had no one greater than him, he could treat Scotland however he pleased to. The final apparition, a Child crowned with a tree in his hand, reassured Macbeth of his permanent possession over the throne by telling him that Macbeth shall never vanquishd be until/ Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane Hill/ Shall come against him. (IV, I, 91-93) Macbeth, thinking that it would be impossible, was fully mesmerized by his confidence and didnt give the prophecies much thought. Macbeth fell into his tragic flaw of ambition and ignored the metaphorical meaning of the prophecy.As the witches awake Macbeths desires of greatness and power, Lady Macbeth leads him into committing murders, and fulfilling the witches prophecies. Lady Macbeth is depicted as a power hungry woman who, through her husband, gains the power she has thirsted for. She was the initial force to make this entire p lay roll along. Macbeth, even though he was not comfortable with where he was, he was at the stage of curiosity, not action. Once Macbeth returned home, his point of view changed completely by Lady Macbeths plans.Lady Macbeth, firstly questions his manliness once he disagrees with her or speaks his mind. It is her constant needling of Macbeth that pushes him towards the decision to kill Duncan, since her challenges towards him triggers, unconsciously, his want to prove her wrong. She is strong willed and knows her husband well enough to exploit his sensitivity about manliness. Lady Macbeth, employs emotional blackmail; From this time, / Such I account thy love (I, vii, 38-39). Lady Macbeth appears to be without a conscience but later on, as foreshadowed Fair is foul, and foul is fair (I, ii, 12); we find that she does indeed have a conscience, which ends up leading her to suicide.Although, some could argue that ambition is something one should be proud of, Macbeths desires are reach ed by wrongful methods. His confidence in the witches prophecies blinds him to the point that he does not see obvious danger in front of him. The admiration by his wife and the witches caused Macbeth to fantasize about over-achieving, and even after he had everything the three weird sisters promised him, he strived for more and more.Macbeths confidence built up throughout the play, and soon enough everything shred to pieces; When fighting Macduff, Macbeth states confidently that he bear[s] a charmed like which must not yield/ To one of woman born. (V, viii, 12-13) without realizing that the apparitions could play against him, again the matter of Fair is foul, and foul is fair (I, ii, 12) Not only did Macduff not come from a womans womb, but the prophecy, Macbeth shall never vanquishd be until / Great Birnam wood to high Dunsinane hill / Shall come against him. (IV, i. 92-94), was ignored by Macbeth, which lead him to fall into his tragic flaw of ambition and disregarded the metaphor ical meaning of the prophecy. Had Macbeth looked deeper into the prophecies and warnings, he could have been better prepared for the contradictory outcomes.Macbeths downfall was a combination of his own ambitions, Lady Macbeths influences, and the witches prophecies. Macbeth had a lot of nobility and ambitions prior to the witches forecasts, but the wicked sisters harvested his ambitions, and Lady Macbeths convincing words were enough to persuade Macbeth to commit deeds that lead both, Lord and Lady Macbeth to the grave. Macbeths nature seemed to be honest, but the darkness and inevitability of evil caught up to him and pulled him deeper until he was wrapped in his own doom.

Degree - Definition and Examples

Degree s In English grammar, degree is one of the three forms used in the comparison of adjectives and adverbs: positive (or base form) (for example, a smart dog)comparative (a smarter dog)superlative (the smartest dog) Almost all one-syllable adjectives, along with some two-syllable adjectives, add -er  to the base to form the comparative, and -est to form the superlative.  In most adjectives of two or more syllables, the comparative and superlative degrees are marked by more and most respectively. Common adjectives with irregular comparative and superlative forms include the following: good, better, bestbad, worse, worstmany, more mostlittle, less, least Etymology From the Latin de-  down   gradus  a step Examples and Observations Every day was a happy day, and every night was peaceful.(E.B. White, Charlottes Web. Harper, 1952)This was a brighter,  happier day. We were all together and we were going to stay that way. (Peter Martin,  A Dog Called Perth. Orion Books, 2001)This is the  happiest day  of my life, because today I have fallen in love.(Philippa Gregory,  The Boleyn Inheritance. Touchstone, 2006)The kids marvel at the rolling brown field, where a handful of sheep graze undisturbed by automobiles or shopping centers- a reminder of what seems a simpler,  more peaceful place  and time. (Jane Futcher,  Marin: The Place, the People. Book Sales, 1983)Im alone in the  most peaceful place  in the world. Well, maybe not the  most peaceful place, as a monastery in the Alps where the monks have all taken a vow of silence and just make cheese all day might be a smidge quieter, but still its very peaceful.(Anne Dayton  and May Vanderbilt, The Book of Jane. Thorndike, 2008)Poverty makes you  sad  as well as  wise. (Bertolt Brecht, The Threepenny Opera, 1928) My father went back to the tailoring business, a  sadder and wiser  man. No, not wiser- just sadder, for his thirteen dollars was gone forever. (Groucho Marx, Groucho and Me, 1959)  For of all  sad  words of tongue and pen,The  saddest  are these: It might have been! (John Greenleaf Whittier, Maud Muller, 1854)Imagination is  more important  than knowledge.(Albert Einstein, The Saturday Evening Post, 1929)It has long been an axiom of mine that the little things are infinitely the most important.†(Arthur Conan Doyle, A Case of Identity) Inflections and Words In some languages, adjectives share the declensions of nouns, inflecting to show gender, number, and case. In English, however, there are only two possible inflections for adjectives, the comparative and the superlative. The adjective comparative and superlative inflections {-er} and {-est} are quite regular, but they can be added only to one- or two-syllable words in English. We have tall, taller, tallest and heavy, heavier, heaviest but not visionary, *visionarier, *visionariest. Adjectives of more than two syllables do not accept inflectional morphemes; for them, entire words, rather than morphological suffixes, are used to indicate the comparative (more visionary) and superlative (most reluctant).Note that the comparative and superlative inflections also appear on a small number of adverbs: He drove longer and faster than anyone else.(Thomas P. Klammer et al., Analyzing English Grammar, 5th ed. Pearson, 2007) Pronunciation: di-GREE

Research-week11 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Research-week11 - Essay Example Teachers can improve children’s attitudes toward school, behavior at school, and academic achievement through the use of effective methods of directions and management. Researched effects of programs offered to teachers, parents, and children. The gap that I see is the application of the social factors in isolation and the extent of impact they have on juvenile behavior being explained by the use of the social learning theory. Also one can achieve a much superior understanding of the individual, societal and psychological aspects of juvenile delinquency. Theory/Theories or Conceptual Framework(s) Related to the Area of Inquiry: The theory that I plan on incorporating in my research is the Social control theory. Social control theory refers to a perspective which predicts that when social constraints on antisocial behavior are weakened or absent, delinquent behavior emerges. Rather than stressing causative factors in criminal behavior, control theory asks why people actually ob ey rules instead of breaking them. This theory stresses the idea that people in a society commit delinquent or criminal acts because of the weakness of the forces restraining them, not because of the strength of forces driving them to do so. It asserts that social controls, like arrest, imprisonment, loss of income, etc. increase the costs of violent behaviors (Psychology glossary). Purpose of Your Research: The purpose of this research paper will be to investigate the social causes of violent juvenile crime. The social elements examined will be that of domestic violence, substance abuse, peer pressure and perhaps media exposure. The social control theory will aid in the explanation and examination of these factors and together accumulate to enhance our understanding of how dire the impact of social elements on today’s youth’s ability to commit crimes is. Your Proposed Research Approach/Methodology: Mixed method research. Describe Your Proposed Design: The mixed method research design that suits research into my area of interest is sequential explanatory strategy. Similar to sequential explanatory strategy, it is conducted in two phases. However this strategy is characterized by the collection and analysis of qualitative data followed by the collection and analysis of quantitative data. In turn, priority is given to the qualitative aspects of this study. The purpose of this strategy is to use quantitative data and results to assist in the interpretation of the qualitative findings (Knowledge base, web). Proposed Research Population and How You Would Draw Upon this Population for your Research Inquiry: Under 18 boys and girls with a juvenile record, who are primarily high school students and belong to the American culture. The method of non probability sampling I believe will be most appropriate for carrying out my research. In fact to be even specific purposive sampling technique which aids exploratory research and encompasses obtaining data from specific individuals, in case of my investigation this would be juveniles. This will ensure internal validity of the study as the chosen sample will be a certain fraction of the population. With the help of self report surveys; questionnaire or poll participants will select a response by themselves without researcher interference. Examples of Research Data

Scenario analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Scenario analysis - Assignment Example pic for organizational research in order for identifying how a firm’s social cultural and technological trends can add to its competitive advantages. Regardless of its US origin, one-third of ‘OXnians’ belong to other countries; and many of them, in addition to English speak Russian, Greek, Mandarin, and other regional languages. Obviously, the diverse workforce has turned to be one of the important competitive advantages of the company as it reduces OXO’s divergence risks in international market. Universal design philosophy is the core of OXO’s business concept for which the company has been globally recognized by reputed business schools and universities as an excellent business model. Most of the products of OXO reflect its genuine concern to consumers’ requirements as it introduces viable solutions to problems associated with handling every day devices. The way it distributes products also has a social manner as it utilizes a wide range of retailer network and online stores across the globe. According to the changing business environment and new trends, OXO has initiated partnership with othe r business groups. For instance, since 2004 the company has been operating as a subsidiary of Helen of Troy Limited. Another significant partnership is with UCB with intent to develop syringe and packaging components that would meet the challenges of rheumatoid arthritis patients by providing them with devices to enable self-administrating medicine. OXO uses the most modern technology for its ease running. Their technological efficacy can be seen mainly in the area of customer services. They have a well developed customer service system that ensures the ‘security, integrity, and confidentiality’ of customer information. When the details of credit card are transmitted online by customer for purchase payment deals, ‘OXO uses industry standard security measures called SSL (Secure Socket Layer Concryption)’. When a person visits their website for the

Defining Pholosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Defining Pholosophy - Essay Example Bertrand Russell, a philosopher, states that philosophy â€Å"is something intermediate between theology and science. Like theology, it consists of speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has, so far, been unascertainable; but like science, it appeals to human reason..." (What is philosophy?, n.d.) The four main branches of philosophy are logic, epistemology, metaphysics and ethics. These branches of philosophy are divided as to the nature of the questions asked in each area; however, these divisions cannot be rigidly separated. Logic pertains to the attempt to codify the rules of rational thought. This is one of the primary tools used by philosophers in their inquiries. Logicians explore the structure of arguments that preserve truth or allow the optimal extraction of knowledge from evidence. The second branch of philosophy is epistemology which is the study of knowledge itself. It deals with the nature, scope, and limits of human knowledge. Epistemologists ask quest ions such as what are the limits to our knowledge, does science give us knowledge at all or can our powers of reasoning give us knowledge. The third branch of philosophy is metaphysics which is the study of the nature of things. Metaphysicians ask what kinds of things exist, and what they are like. This is the area of philosophy which deals with the ultimate nature of reality. Metaphysicians reason about whether or not people have free will, in what sense abstract objects can be said to exist, and how it is that brains are able to generate minds. Examples of questions asked by metaphysicians are: Given that something exists, why that and not something else? Why that and not nothing? Why is there change? How can there also be permanence through change? Ethics is the fourth branch of philosophy which deals with the study of the rightness and wrongness of actions, the kinds of things which are good or desirable, and the blameworthy and praiseworthy actions. This area deals with how we conduct ourselves within the world. Moral philosophers may investigate questions such as, is it right for rape victims to abort their babies or is euthanasia the solution to a comatose patient? Philosophical questions are conceptual not factual. Generally speaking, philosophical questions are often a series of "why-questions." These are questions which cannot be fully answered with a simple â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no†. These questions come about when people reflect on their lives and their world. They are often questions about our concepts and the relation between our concepts and the world they represent. Russell states that philosophical questions â€Å"appeal to human reason† (What is philosophy?, n.d.). Some philosophical questions are practical while others are theoretical. Example of a practical question is, "Is divorce justifiable?" A theoretical question on the other hand, often arise through thinking about practical issues such as â€Å"What is the meaning and purpose of our existence?† According to Stroll and Popkin, philosophical questions have seven characteristics (1972). First, it is a reflection about and the things nothing in it. Example is if one has a pen in his hand and took it off, there is nothing in his hand. So, does that mean that everything exists in nothing? The second characteristic of a philosophical question is it is a conceptual rather than a practical activity. The third characteristic is the use of reason and argumentation to establish a point. Fourth, a philosophical question asks for an explanation of the puzzling features of things such as the mirror, whether it reverses up or down or left or right. A philosophical question also digs beyond the obvious like what is a fact? Is a computer a fact? Another characteristic of

Transcription Section of the Central Dogma

Transcription Section of the Central Dogma Fulya TÃÅ"RKER TRANSCRIPTION: ONE OF THE KEY POINTS OF THE CENTRAL DOGMA ALTERNATIVE SPLICING It is known that the central dogma is the most important principle for an organism to carry on its lifespan. In the central dogma, there are 3 major stages: DNA replication and repair, transcription and translation. DNA replication can be simply described as the duplication of DNA. Transcription is the process of conversion DNA to mRNA. Last step is the translation which means the production of polypeptides from the mRNA, it is simply called as protein synthesis. In this essay, transcription section of the central dogma will be explained with detail. Why transcription is essential for living organisms? Without transcription there is no way to express genes. In order to synthesise protein, at first the mRNA should be formed from a DNA template. Proteins are the functional units in the cells which determine the phenotype of the living organisms. Since the polypeptide chains are formed from the mRNA, there should be a mechanism to create mRNA since it is not found in the cells initially. The proteins that are used in the determination of the phenotype carries the information of the used template DNA strand. DNA sequence is converted to mRNA sequence which then calls the amino acids according to this information. The amino acids form peptide bond with each other and at the end create one, long polypeptide chain. In order to initiate the process, there should be opening of two DNA strands. Since DNA is found as the double helix in the cells, when they are tightly bound to each other, RNA polymerase (the enzyme that adds nucleotides in the 3’ end of the newly formed mRNA strands) can’t bind its template and so transcription can’t initiate. So, the cell must find a way to break the hydrogen bonds between the bases of the DNA strands. In the process of transcription, the essential element is an enzyme, RNA polymerase. What is the significance of this enzyme? AT first, it helps DNA strand to open up for a specific place. The strands are separated from each other and one of them will be selected by polymerase in order to bind and use the information. The newly formed RNA will be carrying the complementary base pairs of the strand that it binds and will have the same sequence with the other strand of the DNA. These are really important points. Of course the new strand will be RNA and eventually will carry uracil instead of thymine. Secondly, in order to elongate the RNA strand, there should be addition of ribonucleotides. During DNA replication, since we are creating new DNA strand, DNA polymerase is responsible for addition of deoxyribonucleotide. However, in transcription we are concerning about RNA strand production. That’s why our enzyme should use ribonuclrotides (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine). The hydrogen bonds that are formed between the RNA and DNA strands are very unstable. That’s why RNA polymerase only allows very small length of binding sequence. Also, another important question is that: how the energy for RNA polymerase to move is provided? Our ribonucleotides are carrying three phosphate molecules. That’s why, they are called adenosine triphosphate or guanine etc. When they are added to the newly formed strand, they will release two of the phosphate in their bases and provide the energy necessary for RNA polymerase. There are some significant differences between the RNA polymerase and DNA polymerase except that one is taking role in replication the other is the enzyme for transcription. As indicated before, DNA polymerase is taking place in the addition of deoxyribonucleotides in the replicated DNA, while RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the newly transcribed RNA molecule. Also, DNA polymerase needs a primer in order to initiate the transcription, but for RNA polymerase it is not necessary. Lastly, in the replication, the repair mechanism is highly active since we are duplicating the DNA, the errors shouldn’t be tolerated that much, but during the transcription there might be some tolerance to mistakes since after the transcription the deformed or faulty mRNA will be recognized by a mechanism and be degraded. There are five major classes of RNAs. First one is the mRNA (messenger RNA). It is so much important since it is the template and carries the genetic information for the protein synthesis. In the cell, it can be found in really small amounts. The importance of the function and the amount of it is inversely proportional in this case. Second one is the rRNA (ribosomal RNA). This is the most abundant RNA type in the living organisms’ cells. As the name is indicating, this RNA type is responsible for the structural design of the ribosomes. Ribosome (which is the place where the translation occurs) is mostly composed of rRNAs and the ribosomal proteins. Ribosome formed in the nucleolus by the association of the rRNA and ribosomal proteins. Third one is also really important for the protein synthesis to occur, it is the most important adaptor in the living organisms’ cells. It is tRNA (transfer RNA); include anticodons which recognises the codons on the mRNA and then attach t o the corresponding protein and brings the amino acid to the ribosome structure and helps forming of the correctly ordered polypeptide chain. Fourth one is the snRNA that is responsible for the splicing of premature mRNA. The other types of RNAs are providing various benefits to the cell and take role in the cellular activities. It is known that the elongation of the new strand should be from 5’ to 3’. So this newly formed strand should use the template that is moving from 3’ to 5’. By pairing with the 3’ end, its initial point will be 5’ and it will elongate through 3’. According to the direction of the movement of RNA polymerase, the mechanism will decide which strand (bottom or top strand) will be used by looking for the 3’ end of the DNA template. Since there are different kinds of RNAs are formed, there should also be different type of RNA polymerase in eukaryotic cells. RNA polymeraseI is used in the transcription of specific rRNA molecules. RNA polymerase is used in order to produce genes that carries the information for protein synthesis (including mRNA) and also snRNA. Lastly RNA polymerase III transcribes the tRNA molecules, some rRNA and snRNA. The mechanism of the transcription is a little bit complicated. Because there are lots of additional proteins are involved in the process, without them transcription can’t occur in eucaryotes. There will be comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription machinery in the following parts of this essay. Let’s start with the transcription of the eukaryotes since it is much more complicated when it is compared to the prokaryotic system. At first, for the initiation of transcription in the eukaryotic gene has a specific sequence which is called as promoter and composed of TATA sequence. This sequence has an essential role in the transcription Ã…Å ¸n order to initiate the process. This TATA sequence is around 25 base pairs upstream from the initiator site and RNA polymerase II recognizes this site and can binds there with the help of protein complex which is called as transcription factors .The first general factor that is used in the process is TFIID and cont ains a specific part that is called TBP (TATA binding protein). TBP will fit the TATA box and activates the addition of other general transcription factor binding. When they are added to the complex RNA polymerase (contains other transcription factor on it) will be able to bind to the start site. Another important factor in the transcription initiation is the activator proteins. Those areTFIIH has a key role in this process since its ability to give the signals for the unwinding of the DNA strands by hydrolysis of the ATP. This ATP usage by TFIIH causes some modification to occur on the RNA polymerase (mostly phosphorylation). This process changes the RNA polymerase’s shape and allows the detachment of the transcription factors from the complex so from now on the initiation of the transcription ends and elongation process is ready to start. For the transcription initiation to carry on, there are some specific sequence on the genome that are called â€Å"enhancers†. Enhancers have a specific property, they are the site for activator protein binding. Enhancers may be thousands of base pair away from the RNA polymerase binding site however it has a specific ability to bend over and find the RNA polymerase so eventually let the activator proteins to interact with the other transcriptional factors on the start site or on the RNA polymerase. In addition to that in order to create a chance for the protein complex to bind to DNA, DNA must be loosely packed. Since, in normal conditions, DNA is found in a very strictly packaged conformation, this must change. Proteins need some sequence to be bound, however if the DNA is packaged strictly in the nucleosome, the transcription factor binding is impossible. So, there are some complex processes that are responsible for the change the packed conformation of the DNA and increase the approachability of the DNA by the transcriptional factor and RNA polymerase. There are mainly two ways to accomplish this aim: chromatin remodelling complex and histone modification. Remodelling complex separates the histones from the DNA strands slightly and the DNA will have a loose conformation. Histone modification is the second way for the increasing of the deforming the packed DNA. Histone acetylation is the best known technique. Histone acetylation causes the histone proteins on the nucleosome t o release the DNA slightly and make protein binding to DNA possible. Second step of the transcription is called the elongation process. There are some elongation factors which provide the attachment of RNA polymerase to DNA throughout the transcription process. Also, they carry out the RNA polymerase and increase its tolerance to the different sequences that should be transcribed. In the elongation stage, the ribonucleotides will be added to the newly formed RNA strand and at the end there will be a termination signal which causes RNA polymerase-DNA interaction breakage and lead to the product which is called precurser mature mRNA (pre-mRNA). Eukaryotic pre-mRNA needs to be exposed to some modification and of course alternative splicing. Since our genome, most of the eukaryotic organisms’ genome is composed of coding (exon) and non-coding (intron) regions, in order to translation process to occur, the pre-mRNA must cleaved from the intron sequences. In addition to that, pre-mRNA needs to be modified and the 2 ends of the pre-mRNA must have some additional feature. This is important because the translational process can’t occur without the cap modifications. Those modifications marks the mRNA as a healthy and usable product and also help the mRNA to be transported to the cytoplasm (protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm) from the nucleus. Firstly, let’s indicate the cap modifications. In the pre-mRNA, there are 2 caps: 5’ cap and 3’ cap. 5’ cap should be modified by the addition of 7-methylguanosine. This procedure is activated by phosphates enzyme, guanyl transferase (GTP to GMP+PP) and methyl transferase. By addition of methylguanosine, the mRNA product is separated from the other RNA molecules and also mRNA, now, will be able to transported to the cytoplasm. 3’ cap is also exposed to additional modification: Poly Adenine tail. At the end of the mRNA product, there will be addition of adenine ribonucleotides and this sequence will prevent the degradation of the mRNA. However, the most exciting and different process that the eukaryotic pre-mRNA is faced with is the splicing. At the beginning and end of each intron, there are a specific sequences that indicates that the machinery is dealing with an intron. The 5’ end of the intron mostly contains GU and 3’ end of it contains AG. Also we have specific base in the middle of the intron, Adenine, which is also called as a branch point and gives the signal for 5’ end binding and the formation of the lariat with the help of the snRNPs. What are the snRNPs and what is their role? At first, as it is claimed in the earliest pages of this essay, there is a specific RNA type which is known as snRNA (small nuclear RNA) which are the important factors in the RNA splicing. In the splicing theory, the 5 of them play an active role: U1, U2, U4, U5, U6. Those particles recognise the exon and intron end and start points and can distinguish them so help the splicing process a lot. Each of them co ntain at least seven proteins and form snRNPs (small nuclear ribonucleoprotein) which afterwards creates a structure that is called a â€Å"spliceosome†. Now, in the following section each snRNP that is actively join the splicing process will be explained. At first, there is a BBP protein which binds to the branch point (mostly Adenine). U2 snRNP recognizes BBP binding and replaces this protein with itself and form interaction with the branch point. U2 pushes A to the outside of the sequence and allows the attack of the 5’ site to this specific base. U1 initially recognises the 5’ end of the intron. U4-U5-U6 joins the process as a triplet. U4 and U6 is dissociated from each other and U6 removes the U1 snRNP and sits onto the 5’ end. U6 and branch point interacts and come closer (the process is called first phosphoryl transfer-reaction). At the end of this process lariat formation occurs. Lastly, U5 causes exon-exon interactions and second phosphoryl-transfer reaction takes place. At the end of this process the RNA is spliced and the mature mRNA is formed. In mature mRNA, there is 5’ cap, 3’ poly a tail and no introns. From now on, this mRNA is ready to synthesise the protein (the process of translatio n). Also, there is a theory of alternative splicing which should be mentioned in the discussion about the RNA splicing subject. After the removal of the introns, some exon can leave the sequence and cause alternative sequences. In this process, no shuffling of exons is allowed, but some of them leave the track. The first exon, which carries the start codon AUG, can’t change. It must be always found in the first position of the mature mRNA. The last exon of the spliced RNA must also contain one of the stop codons (UAA,UAG, UGA). But, other exon sequences are allowed to change without shuffling. Exon orders must be preserved. The below diagram indicates the process of the alternative splicing: Lastly, it is important to mention about the differences between the eukaryotic and prokaryotic transcription. In prokaryotes, we have a special term for the DNA which is called an operon. Operon carries the information for more than one gene and transcribed by the single promoter, eventually create a single mRNA which contain more than one gene. This single mRNA will be translated and eventually produce more than one protein, this characteristic of the prokaryotic DNA is called as â€Å"polycistronic† gene. However, in eucaryotes, there is only one gene that is transcribed at once. That’s why eukaryotic organisms are called as â€Å"monocistronic†. Prokaryotic transcription is only dependent to one factor in order to hold the RNA polymerase on the DNA while the eukaryotic transcription needs so many transcription factor, additional proteins and mediators. Also, since the prokaryotic DNA is found in a loose conformation in its original form, there is no need to use additional modification to destroy the packed structure as in the eukaryotes. So prokaryotic transcription machinery doesn’t use any chromatin remodelling complex or histone modifications. Prokaryotes don’t have intron in their pre-mRNA so there is no splicing in their mRNA after it is synthesised. They are free from introns, their mRNA is composed of more than one gene. Lastly, prokaryotes don’t need additional cap modification after the transcription of the mRNA. the mRNA can be easily transcribed as soon as they are synthesised. References: Belfort, M. (1989). RNA: Catalysis, splicing, evolution. Amsterdam: Elsevier . Belotserkovskaya, R., Saunders, A., Lis, J., Reinberg, D. (n.d.). Transcription through chromatin: Understanding a complex FACT. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta (BBA) Gene Structure and Expression, 87-99. Dahlberg, J. (1989). RNA processing. San Diego: Academic Press. Darnell, J., Lodish, H. (1990). Molecular cell biology (2nd ed.). New York: Scientific American Books :. Elliott, D., Ladomery, M. (2011). Molecular biology of RNA. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goodrich, J. A.; Tjian, R. (1994). Transcription factors IIE and IIH and ATP hydrolysis direct promoter clearance by RNA polymerase II. Cell. Latchman, D. (2004). Eukaryotic transcription factors (4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. Locker, J. (2001). Transcription factors. Oxford: BIOS ;. Ohyama, T. (2005). DNA conformation and transcription. Georgetown, Tex.: Landes Bioscience/Eurekah.com ;. Raven, Peter H. (2011). Biology (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Stamm, S. (2012). Alternative pre-mRNA splicing theory and protocols. Weinheim: Wiley-Blackwell. Wagner, R. (2000). Transcription regulation in prokaryotes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Into Thin Air, by Jon Krakauer Essay -- Into Thin Air, Jon Krakauer

In the novel Into Thin Air, the author Jon Krakauer shows us two characters who have some similarities, yet are markedly different. Rob Hall and Scott Fischer are both world renowned mountain climbers as well as the leaders and head guides of their own mountain climbing enterprises. Each employ the respect of his peers, yet here is where the similarities end. With differences in their physical stature, climbing styles, and safety concerns, it would seem that one was destined to succeed and other to fail. Krakauer describes Hall as being a thirty-five-year-old man standing at "six foot three or four and skinny as a pole" (31). His approach to climbing and guiding was meticulous and demanding. He paid close attention to details and had an intense desire to succeed. Hall made many successful climbs prior to his attempt at Everest. In 1990, after three separate attempts over a span of ten years, Hall finally made the summit of Everest. Hall’s flair for publicity had allowed him the success of his prior climbs, but he decided that the guiding business was preferable to constantly pursuing sponsorships. After creating Adventure Consultants, his mountain climbing enterprise, Hall became very successful at getting his clients to the top of Mount Everest. By 1996, he was charging sixty-five thousand dollars per person. This fee was the highest of all the companies on Mt. Everest. Hall’s success rate was not only due to his attention to detail but his attention to safety and the knowledge that without the Sherpas, any attempt at guiding on Everest would be disastrous. Hall’s ability to plan and coordinate ensured that his clients had plenty of food and supplies and that they became acclimatized to the higher altitudes. Each base camp ... ... Scott’s clients who were sick, instead of a Sherpa, I don’t think he would have been treated so haphazardly’" (113). Had Fischer not had such a lax approach to climbing, a guide would have been with Ngawang Toche and had him down the mountain sooner. While Hall was the better guide, both gentlemen held the respect of their peers for their individual climbing skills. Of the climbers on the mountains that day, they were considered the best. Yet despite their skills or their ability to guide, both succumbed to the tragedy on the mountain. Krakauer admired both Hall and Fischer for different reasons, yet he uses them as examples to show us that no matter how good, passionate, or skillful a person might be, the tragedy on the mountain was a cascade effect beyond human control. Works Cited Krakauer, Jon. Into Thin Air. Digital ed. New York: Random House, 2000. Into Thin Air, by Jon Krakauer Essay -- Into Thin Air, Jon Krakauer In the novel Into Thin Air, the author Jon Krakauer shows us two characters who have some similarities, yet are markedly different. Rob Hall and Scott Fischer are both world renowned mountain climbers as well as the leaders and head guides of their own mountain climbing enterprises. Each employ the respect of his peers, yet here is where the similarities end. With differences in their physical stature, climbing styles, and safety concerns, it would seem that one was destined to succeed and other to fail. Krakauer describes Hall as being a thirty-five-year-old man standing at "six foot three or four and skinny as a pole" (31). His approach to climbing and guiding was meticulous and demanding. He paid close attention to details and had an intense desire to succeed. Hall made many successful climbs prior to his attempt at Everest. In 1990, after three separate attempts over a span of ten years, Hall finally made the summit of Everest. Hall’s flair for publicity had allowed him the success of his prior climbs, but he decided that the guiding business was preferable to constantly pursuing sponsorships. After creating Adventure Consultants, his mountain climbing enterprise, Hall became very successful at getting his clients to the top of Mount Everest. By 1996, he was charging sixty-five thousand dollars per person. This fee was the highest of all the companies on Mt. Everest. Hall’s success rate was not only due to his attention to detail but his attention to safety and the knowledge that without the Sherpas, any attempt at guiding on Everest would be disastrous. Hall’s ability to plan and coordinate ensured that his clients had plenty of food and supplies and that they became acclimatized to the higher altitudes. Each base camp ... ... Scott’s clients who were sick, instead of a Sherpa, I don’t think he would have been treated so haphazardly’" (113). Had Fischer not had such a lax approach to climbing, a guide would have been with Ngawang Toche and had him down the mountain sooner. While Hall was the better guide, both gentlemen held the respect of their peers for their individual climbing skills. Of the climbers on the mountains that day, they were considered the best. Yet despite their skills or their ability to guide, both succumbed to the tragedy on the mountain. Krakauer admired both Hall and Fischer for different reasons, yet he uses them as examples to show us that no matter how good, passionate, or skillful a person might be, the tragedy on the mountain was a cascade effect beyond human control. Works Cited Krakauer, Jon. Into Thin Air. Digital ed. New York: Random House, 2000.